Kyrgyzstan Economy & Tech Sector 2026: GDP Growth, IT Exports, and Digital Code Analysis

The Economy and Technology Sector of Modern Kyrgyzstan

1. Summary

The Kyrgyz Republic has emerged as one of the fastest-growing economies in the Eurasian region, with GDP growth reaching 11.1 percent in 2025, substantially exceeding the forecasts of all major international financial institutions [8]. This growth has been accompanied by a remarkable expansion of the technology sector, anchored by the High-Tech Park (HTP), which generated US$195.4 million in revenue in 2025, with exports growing 52.8 percent year-on-year to US$186.3 million [9][10].

The technology sector, while still modest in absolute terms relative to developed economies, has become Kyrgyzstan's most dynamic export-oriented industry. The HTP's geographic reach expanded to 70 countries in 2025, up from 64 in 2024 [10]. This performance reflects a deliberate policy of preferential taxation—zero VAT, zero profit tax—combined with infrastructure investments such as the Digital CASA fiber-optic backbone project, which has laid over 3,500 kilometers of cable and connected more than 3,800 social facilities [16].

The regulatory architecture underwent a fundamental transformation with the adoption of the Digital Code in June 2025, which systematizes digital governance, personal data protection, artificial intelligence regulation, and telecommunications oversight into a single legal framework [11][12]. Concurrently, the 2025 Law on Investments replaced the 2003 framework, aiming to improve the investment climate for foreign technology investors [4].

However, the outlook is not without material risks. The technology sector's heavy export concentration, human capital constraints (with estimates suggesting only 5,000–6,000 programmers nationally) [22] currency volatility, as well as geopolitical spillovers from sanctions affecting Russia, present significant challenges. The International Monetary Fund projected growth moderation to 6.8 percent in 2025 (a projection subsequently surpassed) and convergence to approximately 5.25 percent over the medium term [7]. The central strategic question for Kyrgyzstan is whether the technology sector can continue its rapid expansion and diversify its market base sufficiently to sustain growth as re-export trade normalizes and domestic demand moderates.

2. Contextual and Scientific Background

2.1. Geographic and Demographic Overview of the Kyrgyz Republic

The Kyrgyz Republic is a landlocked, mountainous country in Central Asia, bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and China to the east. The population was approximately 7.37 million in 2025 [7]. The country's geography, particularly the Tien Shan mountain range, poses significant challenges for infrastructure development, particularly for last-mile connectivity in remote and high-altitude regions. Approximately 2,227 populated settlements are spread across the country's 199,951 square kilometers [3].

2.2. Historical Economic Trajectory Since Independence (1991–Present)

Following independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, Kyrgyzstan experienced a prolonged economic contraction throughout the 1990s, driven by the collapse of Soviet-era supply chains, the loss of transfer payments, and the transition to a market economy. The early 2000s brought moderate recovery, largely driven by gold mining (the Kumtor mine) and agricultural exports. The economy remained heavily dependent on remittances from labor migrants, primarily to Russia and Kazakhstan.

The period from 2022 onward marked a structural inflection point. The influx of Russian migrants and capital following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine significantly boosted domestic demand, services activity, and the technology sector [7]. This exogenous shock, combined with Kyrgyzstan's role as a re-export hub for goods destined for Russia, propelled GDP growth to 9 percent annually from 2022 through 2024 [24]. The 2025 growth of 11.1 percent represents both the culmination of these dynamics and, as the IMF projects, the peak of this cycle before moderation [7][8].

2.3. Current Macroeconomic Structure

Kyrgyzstan's economy is services-led, with the service sector accounting for approximately 51 percent of GDP and goods production for approximately 34 percent [0]. The construction sector demonstrated exceptional growth of 21.1 percent in 2025, followed by services at 10.9 percent and agriculture at 2.2 percent [8]. Investments in fixed capital reached a record 374.6 billion soms (US$4.2 billion), growing 18.4 percent year-on-year [8].

Per capita GDP in 2025 was approximately US$2,616, projected to rise to US$2,770 by year-end [0]. While this places Kyrgyzstan in the lower-middle-income category, the growth trajectory has been among the fastest in the Central Asian region [0].

Employment patterns remain characterized by a large informal sector, significant labor migration (with an estimated 2.8 million working-age citizens), and a small but rapidly growing formal technology workforce [22]. The economy remains highly dependent on gold exports, remittances, and re-export trade, though the technology sector is gradually diversifying the export base.

2.4. The Emergence of the Digital Economy: Conceptual Framing and Regional Positioning

The digital economy in Kyrgyzstan can be understood through three overlapping layers: digital infrastructure (connectivity and hardware), digital services (IT exports and outsourcing), and digital governance (e-government and regulatory frameworks). Kyrgyzstan has positioned itself as a regional leader in digital governance (the Digital Code was the first comprehensive digital legislation in Central Asia [19]) while the HTP has created a specialized export enclave for IT services.

Regionally, Kyrgyzstan compares favorably on mobile connectivity (99–99.4 percent 4G population coverage) but lags on mobile internet speed (ranked 80th globally in the Speedtest Global Index as of February 2026) [13]. The country's GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index score of 52 out of 100 places it ahead of Tajikistan (19), comparable to Uzbekistan (50), and behind Kazakhstan (80) [3]. This mixed positioning suggests that Kyrgyzstan has achieved broad access but faces quality and affordability constraints that may limit the depth of digital adoption.

3. Key Players and Stakeholders

3.1. Government Institutions

The Ministry of Digital Development serves as the primary executive agency for digital transformation, overseeing the implementation of the Digital Code, the Digital CASA project, and the broader "Digital Kyrgyzstan" initiative [16]. The National Statistical Committee provides the official economic and demographic data underpinning policy analysis. The National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic manages monetary policy, currency stability, and is piloting the Digital Som central bank digital currency [23].

3.2. Quasi-Governmental and Development Institutions

The High-Tech Park (HTP) is the central institutional vehicle for the technology sector, operating as a special economic zone with preferential tax treatment. As of end-2025, the HTP registered 463 resident companies and employed approximately 3,000 people [9]. The Investment Council provides advisory functions on investment climate reform. Development partners including the World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), Eurasian Development Bank (EDB), International Monetary Fund (IMF), and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) provide technical assistance, financing, and policy advice across digital infrastructure and governance domains.

3.3. Private Sector Actors

The private technology sector is concentrated in Bishkek, where the Bishkek IT Hub (Technopark) houses 250 resident companies, with 115 separate offices and 344 open-space workstations, providing over 3,000 jobs [0][6]. Major telecommunications operators include Megacom (state-affiliated, with extensive rural coverage), O! (formerly Beeline Kyrgyzstan), and Beeline, which together provide mobile and internet services across the country [21]. The fintech startup ecosystem, while nascent, includes companies developing digital payment solutions and blockchain-based services.

3.4. International Stakeholders

China is the largest bilateral investor, with cumulative FDI reaching approximately US$2.1 billion and a 38.4 percent share of 2025 FDI inflows [4]. Turkey (14.6 percent), the Netherlands (7.6 percent), and the United Kingdom (3.1 percent) are also significant sources [4]. Russia remains an important economic partner despite a 35 percent decline in FDI inflows in 2025 [15]. Multilateral institutions such as the IMF, World Bank, ADB, EBRD, and EDB, provide both financing and policy frameworks. Regional integration occurs through the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), of which Kyrgyzstan is a member.

4. Technical and Operational Considerations

4.1. Digital Infrastructure

Internet reached 88.5 percent of the population (6.41 million users) at the beginning of 2025 [0]. Mobile connectivity is extensive: 4G coverage reaches 99 to 99.4 percent of the population [13]. However, mobile internet speed remains a constraint, with Kyrgyzstan ranked 80th globally in the Speedtest Global Index as of February 2026 [13].

The Digital CASA–Kyrgyz Republic project, implemented with the participation of OJSC Kyrgyztelecom, has been the flagship infrastructure initiative. Key outcomes include: over 3,500 kilometers of fiber-optic cable laid; over 3,800 social facilities (schools, hospitals, and government institutions) connected; 212 new communication nodes built; and 30 backbone nodes deployed [16][5]. The project also created a centralized government cloud infrastructure (G-Cloud) and initiated the development of regional data centers [16].

The telecommunications market reached 39.3 billion soms in 2025, growing 8.4 percent, substantially exceeding the global average of 2.5 percent and the Russian market's 6.5 percent [13]. Mobile services and internet access account for 95.6 percent of telecom revenue [13]. To 2028, the market is projected to reach 46.7 billion soms, with bundled mobile and digital service packages as the primary growth drivers [13]. Point 5G deployment is expected in Bishkek, Osh, and other major cities [13].

4.2. The High-Tech Park

The High-Tech Park operates as a specialized economic zone with a governance structure that provides resident companies with preferential tax treatment: zero VAT, zero profit tax, and zero sales tax [10]. At end-2025, the HTP registered 463 resident companies, up from approximately 470 in 2024 (a slight decline reflecting a more stringent registration process rather than a contraction) [9][1].

Total revenue reached 17.1 billion soms (US$195.4 million) in 2025, representing 50 percent year-on-year growth [9]. Exports accounted for 16.3 billion soms (US$186.3 million), or 95.3 percent of total revenue, with export growth of 52.8 percent [9]. The geographic market expanded to 70 countries [10].

Employment in HTP resident companies reached approximately 3,000, a modest figure that reflects the high-value, low-labor-intensity nature of software exports [9]. Combined tax and social payments reached 426 million soms (US$4.87 million) in 2025, up from 304.7 million soms (US$3.5 million) in 2024 [9].

4.3. IT Services Export

IT services exports are overwhelmingly concentrated in software development, outsourcing, and business process outsourcing. The export intensity of the HTP (95.3 percent of revenue) indicates that the sector is fundamentally oriented toward foreign markets rather than domestic consumption [9]. The top export markets are not officially disaggregated in public data, but Russian, European, and North American clients are understood to be significant. The sector's expansion to 70 countries suggests ongoing diversification, though concentration risks remain.

4.4. Startup Ecosystem

The venture capital ecosystem in Kyrgyzstan remains nascent. Kyrgyzstan attracted US$3 million in venture capital in 2025, a minimal figure relative to the US$320 million raised across Central Asia as a whole [18]. The government has announced plans to establish a national venture fund for the creative industry and to launch the Tamchy financial and investment zone [18]. The broader Central Asian venture ecosystem faces a capital gap of US$0.5–1.1 billion annually, indicating that significant scaling of venture activity in Kyrgyzstan will require either substantial foreign investment or a major expansion of domestic sources of risk capital [18].

Notable technology startups remain few, and the ecosystem is characterized by small-scale software development firms rather than product-based technology companies. The Digital Nomad program, launched in December 2025, allows foreign remote workers to reside in Kyrgyzstan for up to 10 years, potentially increasing the pool of skilled technology professionals and fostering knowledge spillovers [25].

4.5. E-Government and Digital Public Services

Kyrgyzstan has made substantial progress in digital public service delivery. The Tunduk mobile application has been downloaded 2.85 million times and provides access to 60 government services and 10 digital documents, including ID cards, driver's licenses, and birth certificates [19]. The Kyzmat ID system serves as a digital identity platform. The government portal and Tunduk application together offer 182 digital government services, of which 32 are specifically designed to support small and medium enterprises [19].

The Digital Code, which entered into force on February 5, 2026, provides the legal foundation for these services, establishing rules for data processing, telecommunications networks, and artificial intelligence systems [11][2]. The "Smart Bazhy" information system represents a further step in customs and trade digitalization within the EAEU framework [17].

5. Economic and Market Dynamics

5.1. GDP Growth Performance (2021–2025)

Kyrgyzstan's GDP reached approximately 1.976 trillion soms (US$22.5 billion) in 2025, with real GDP growth of 11.1 percent [8]. This substantially exceeded all major forecasts: the IMF projected 8.0 percent, ADB 8.3 percent, EBRD 9.0 percent, and EDB 10.0 percent [8]. Preliminary figures for January-November 2025 indicated GDP growth of 10.2 percent [0].

The growth was driven by construction (21.1 percent), services (10.9 percent), and agriculture (2.2 percent) [8]. Fixed capital investment reached a record 374.6 billion soms (US$4.2 billion) [8]. The IMF projects moderation to 6.8 percent in 2025 (a projection that actual outturns exceeded) and convergence to approximately 5.25 percent over the medium term, as re-export trade normalizes and domestic demand eases [7]. The EDB projects 10.2 percent GDP growth for 2026, supported by investment activity in industry, energy, and housing construction [0]. The ADB projects 8.9 percent growth for 2026 [0].

5.2. Fiscal Position

Public debt declined to 36.6 percent of GDP in 2024, down from 44.6 percent at end-2023 [24]. As of July 31, 2025, the debt-to-GDP ratio stood at 39.5 percent, comprising external debt of 24.8 percent and domestic debt of 14.7 percent [24]. The overall fiscal balance is expected to swing from a surplus of 1.9 percent of GDP in 2024 to a deficit of 3.4 percent of GDP in 2025, remaining around 3 percent of GDP in the medium term [24].

International reserves reached nearly US$8 billion at end-October 2025, an increase of more than US$3 billion year-on-year [0]. This reserve buffer provides a significant cushion against external shocks and currency volatility.

5.3. Inflation and Monetary Policy

Inflation reached 9.4 percent year-on-year in December 2025, having accelerated from mid-2025 [23]. The National Bank projects annual inflation of 6.5 percent by end-2025 and average annual inflation of 6.9 percent, though actual outturns have exceeded these projections [23]. The ADB projects inflation rising from 8.2 percent in 2025 to 10.3 percent in 2026, driven by strong domestic demand, scheduled increases in electricity and heating tariffs, and exchange rate pass-through [23].

The National Bank has maintained a tight monetary policy stance, with the discount rate at 11 percent since July 2025 [23]. EDB analysts expect this rate to remain in place to bring inflation back to the 5–7 percent target range [23]. The Ministry of Finance projects inflation of 5.5 percent for 2025 and 6.5 percent for 2026, though these figures appear optimistic relative to actual trends [23].

5.4. Foreign Direct Investment

FDI inflows in the first quarter of 2025 reached approximately US$288.3 million, 40 percent higher than the same period in 2024 [4]. Total FDI inflows for 2025 reached US$1.31 billion, a 27.3 percent increase year-on-year [15]. More than 90 percent of FDI was directed to manufacturing, mining, financial intermediation, insurance, wholesale and retail trade, and the information and communication sector [15].

The information and communication sector saw FDI increase 9.7-fold year-on-year, indicating strong investor interest in digital infrastructure and services [15]. China accounted for 38.4 percent of total FDI, followed by Turkey (14.6 percent), the Netherlands (7.6 percent), and the United Kingdom (3.1 percent) [4]. Investment from the Netherlands increased eightfold, while investment from Russia declined 35 percent [15].

As of September 2025, the National Investment Agency was supporting over 15 investment projects with a total declared volume exceeding US$5.9 billion, including initiatives in IT, tourism, and renewable energy [14].

5.5. E-Commerce and Digital Payments

The e-commerce market was estimated at US$525 million in 2025, with approximately 15 percent year-on-year growth [0]. The National Bank is piloting a central bank digital currency, the Digital Som, as part of broader financial digitalization efforts [20]. The virtual assets market has seen significant activity, with the aggregate turnover of virtual asset service providers reaching 1.8 trillion soms [20]. In November 2025, Kyrgyzstan launched a gold-backed stablecoin (USDKG) with an initial issuance of US$50 million, alongside a separate som-pegged stablecoin (KGST) [20]. The country ranks 19th globally in the cryptocurrency adoption index and leads Central Asia in this metric [20].

6. Regulatory Landscape

6.1. The Digital Code of the Kyrgyz Republic

The Digital Code was adopted by the Parliament on June 18, 2025, signed into law on July 31, 2025, and took effect six months from official publication, on February 5, 2026 [2]. The Code consolidates regulations previously dispersed across multiple laws into a unified framework for digital governance [12].

Key provisions include: detailed rules on personal data protection (processing, storage, transfer, and security); regulation of digital services and telecommunications networks; provisions for artificial intelligence systems; and the framework for state oversight and special regulation in the digital sphere [11][12][2]. The Code establishes the legal basis for e-government services, digital signatures, and cross-border data flows. The Cabinet of Ministers adopted a resolution establishing requirements for the safety and quality of AI systems, the first such regulation at the national level, which took effect 15 days after the Digital Code entered into force [2].

6.2. Investment Law Reform

The 2025 Law on Investments was adopted on August 12, 2025, replacing the 2003 law [4]. The new law aims to improve the investment climate through streamlined procedures, enhanced investor protections, and clearer dispute resolution mechanisms. While specific provisions for technology investors are not publicly detailed, the law is intended to support the broader objective of increasing foreign investment in digital services and infrastructure.

6.3. Intellectual Property, Data Protection, and Cross-Border Data Flow

The Digital Code provides the primary framework for intellectual property in the digital domain, data protection, and cross-border data flows. The personal data protection provisions align with international standards, though the specific mechanisms for enforcement and the extent of extraterritorial application remain to be tested in practice. No peer-reviewed source was identified that systematically evaluates the effectiveness or implementation status of these provisions as of mid-2026.

6.4. Taxation of the Digital Economy

The HTP's preferential tax regime (zero VAT, zero profit tax, zero sales tax) has been the primary fiscal instrument supporting the technology sector [10]. The effectiveness of this regime is evidenced by the 52.8 percent export growth and 50 percent revenue growth in 2025 [9]. However, the narrow tax base raises questions of fiscal sustainability and equity, particularly as the sector grows and the foregone tax revenue becomes more significant.

6.5. AI Governance and Cryptocurrency Regulation

The regulatory landscape for artificial intelligence governance and cryptocurrency is developing. The Digital Code includes provisions for AI systems, and a subsequent Cabinet resolution established safety and quality requirements for AI [2]. Cryptocurrency regulation is governed by the Law on Virtual Assets, with amendments in November 2025 tightening requirements for virtual asset operators, introducing a ban on unsecured virtual asset issuance, and aligning regulations with Financial Action Task Force (FATF) recommendations [20]. The regulatory framework for these domains remains in early stages, and the empirical evidence on implementation and effectiveness is limited.

7. Geopolitical and Strategic Dimensions

7.1. Kyrgyzstan within the Eurasian Economic Union

Kyrgyzstan's EAEU membership, which commenced in 2015, entails obligations on customs coordination, technical standards, and economic integration. Digital integration has become a priority, with Kyrgyzstan actively participating in the formation of a single digital space for the EAEU [6]. The "Smart Bazhy" information system represents Kyrgyzstan's contribution to customs digitalization within the union [17].

The 7th Kyrgyz-Russian Economic Forum in August 2025, themed "Digital Sovereignty as a Driver of Economic Growth," underscored the tension between digital integration and national sovereignty in the EAEU context [6]. While EAEU membership provides access to a larger market and facilitates trade, it also constrains policy autonomy and exposes Kyrgyzstan to geopolitical spillovers from Russia's international isolation.

7.2. China's Belt and Road Initiative

China is Kyrgyzstan's largest investor and a critical infrastructure partner. The China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan railway, a major Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) project, is expected to enhance connectivity and trade but also raises concerns about debt sustainability and strategic alignment [4]. On the digital sector, Chinese investment in telecommunications infrastructure and technology has been significant, though specific digital BRI projects in Kyrgyzstan are less well-documented than physical infrastructure. The 38.4 percent share of Chinese FDI in 2025 indicates deepening economic integration, with implications for technological standards and data governance [4].

7.3. United States and Western Engagement

The C5+1 framework (United States plus the five Central Asian republics) provides the primary platform for U.S. engagement. Technology cooperation, investment promotion, and technical assistance are components of this engagement, though the scale of U.S. investment and technology transfer remains modest relative to Chinese and Russian involvement. The United States has supported STEM education and digital skills development programs, but no comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of these programs was identified in the available literature [22].

7.4. Russia's Influence

Russia remains a significant economic partner despite a 35 percent decline in FDI inflows in 2025 [15]. The influx of Russian migrants since 2022 has been a major driver of Kyrgyzstan's economic growth, boosting domestic demand and the services sector [7]. However, sanctions on Russia have created both opportunities (increased re-export trade, relocation of Russian IT professionals and companies) and risks (secondary sanctions exposure, currency volatility, financial system vulnerabilities). Kyrgyzstan's technology sector has benefited from the relocation of some Russian IT firms and professionals, though the sustainability of this benefit depends on the trajectory of sanctions and Russia's economic integration with the West.

7.5. Evidentiary Gap

Limited empirical data was identified on Kyrgyzstan's specific technology sector engagement with the United States beyond general diplomatic frameworks. The scale and nature of Western technology cooperation, investment, and technical assistance remain poorly documented in publicly available sources.

8. Risk Matrix

9. Strategic Recommendations

9.1. Recommendations for Senior Economists and Policymakers

First, sustain the HTP preferential tax regime in the short to medium term to maintain the momentum of export growth, but develop a clear roadmap for gradual fiscal normalization as the sector matures and the tax base broadens. The current zero-tax regime is appropriate for the sector's growth phase but should be evaluated for phase-out or modification once exports exceed a threshold (e.g., US$500 million annually).

Second, prioritize human capital development through expanded STEM education, university-industry partnerships, and the Digital Nomad program. The estimated 5,000–6,000 programmers nationally is insufficient to sustain the sector's growth trajectory [22]. Increased public investment in computer science education, coding bootcamps, and vocational training is urgently needed.

Third, continue infrastructure investment in fiber-optic backbone, data centers, and 5G deployment, with particular attention to electricity reliability for data centers. The Digital CASA project has laid the foundation; the next phase should focus on quality-of-service improvements and last-mile connectivity in underserved regions.

Fourth, diversify export markets through targeted trade promotion, diplomatic engagement, and participation in international technology conferences. While the HTP has expanded to 70 countries, the sector remains vulnerable to concentration risk.

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9.2. Recommendations for Technology Investors and Entrepreneurs

First, enter the Kyrgyz market through the HTP to benefit from the preferential tax regime and established ecosystem. The 463 resident companies provide a network of potential partners, suppliers, and clients [9].

Second, focus on export-oriented software development and outsourcing, where Kyrgyzstan has demonstrated comparative advantage. The 52.8 percent export growth in 2025 indicates strong and growing demand [10]. Consider serving clients in Europe, North America, and the Middle East to diversify beyond traditional Russian and CIS markets.

Third, explore opportunities in fintech and blockchain, where Kyrgyzstan has adopted progressive regulation, including the Law on Virtual Assets and the launch of stablecoins [20]. The Digital Som CBDC pilot presents further opportunities [20].

Fourth, leverage the Digital Nomad program to bring in foreign talent and build local capacity [25]. The ability to bring in skilled foreign professionals for up to 10 years can address immediate human capital constraints while training local staff.

9.3. Recommendations for International Relations Specialists and Development Partners

First, support the implementation of the Digital Code through technical assistance on data protection enforcement, AI governance, and cybersecurity capacity building. The Code provides the legal framework; implementation capacity remains limited.

Second, expand STEM education and digital skills programs, particularly in rural areas and among women and underrepresented groups. The brain drain risk can be mitigated by creating high-quality local opportunities and building a robust talent pipeline.

Third, engage on cybersecurity cooperation, including threat intelligence sharing, incident response capacity building, and workforce development. The cybersecurity skills gap identified in the literature requires coordinated international response [22].

Fourth, monitor and address geopolitical risks through diplomatic engagement that balances relations with China, Russia, and Western partners. Kyrgyzstan's strategic position requires careful navigation; development partners should support institutional capacity that enables independent and resilient policymaking.

9.4. Recommendations for Travelers and Business Visitors

First, Bishkek is the center of the technology ecosystem. The Bishkek IT Hub (Technopark) houses 250 resident companies and serves as the primary networking venue [0]. Visit the HTP and attend technology events to connect with the local ecosystem.

Second, mobile connectivity is extensive (99–99.4 percent 4G coverage), but internet speed is moderate (ranked 80th globally) [13]. Telecommunications services are provided by three major operators: Megacom (best for rural coverage), O! (competitive pricing), and Beeline [21].

Third, the Digital Nomad program allows foreign remote workers to reside in Kyrgyzstan for up to 10 years, with an initial 60-day status renewable annually [25]. This provides a legal pathway for extended business stays.

Fourth, cultural and commercial norms reflect a blend of Central Asian hospitality and post-Soviet business practices. Russian remains widely used in business contexts, though English proficiency is growing among younger technology professionals. Building personal relationships is essential for successful business engagement.

References

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